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The opsins used for optogenetics have different ion conductance regulation properties, acting within timeframes ranging from milliseconds to tens of minutes ( Fenno et al., 2011). Several types of microbial opsins have been identified as suitable for optogenetic control and each type reacts differently to light stimulation of particular wavelengths e.g., blue light makes channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) rapidly depolarize a neuron. Both types require retinal (a vitamin A-related organic cofactor) to convert light into energy, and the binding of retinal renders these opsins rhodopsins ( Fenno et al., 2011). There are two distinct superfamilies: microbical opsins (type I) and animal opsins (type II). (A) First, light-responsive proteins called opsins need to be specified. Optogenetic stimulation consists of several steps. However, several steps need to be taken to achieve this, as illustrated in Figure 1.įigure 1. Ultimately, optogenetics may be used to control the behavior of freely moving mammals by administering light. elegans, fly, zebrafish, mouse, rat, and primate ( Fenno et al., 2011). It can be used in several animal models, including the C. Strictly speaking, optogenetics involves “experimenting with a combination of genetic manipulation and optics” ( Kasparov, 2011). Instead, we will restrict ourselves to briefly introducing the general concept of optogenetics and discussing its potential for cognitive neuroscience. It is beyond the scope of this article to provide an exhaustive discussion of all discoveries that led to what optogenetics is today, or of all the impressive and sophisticated advances to improve the technique. In 2005, researchers at Karl Deisseroth's laboratory first demonstrated a single-component optogenetic system ( Boyden et al., 2005), and in 2006 the term “optogenetics” was born. Other members of this family were identified soon after, including halorhodopsin ( Matsuno-Yagi and Mukohata, 1977) and channelrhodopsin ( Nagel et al., 2002). Oesterhelt and Stoeckenius (1971) discovered bacteriorhodopsin, an ion-pump that can be activated by light photons. Around that time it became clear that certain microorganisms possess proteins that respond to light. Already in 1979, Francis Crick anticipated the struggle of neuroscience to target individual cells in vivo without affecting others, and he suggested light as a tool to achieve that. The idea of using light to control cells is not a recent one.
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Until now, this technique has been applied in animal research only but, as we argue, it holds promise for research in humans as well. It is a technology that enables researchers to stimulate cells with light, thereby allowing for the direct control of behavior. The well-known trade-off between temporal and spatial specificity might be resolved with this “combination of genetic and optical methods to achieve gain or loss of function of well-defined events in specific cells of living tissue” ( Deisseroth, 2011). This ability is restricted to Pearls only other gem types must go to an Angelite.Optogenetics may be the answer to a search for temporal and spatial specificity in neuroscience. 'Repair Station' - Nacres can also repair damaged Pearls. The exact process is unspecified and unknown, but it is not foolproof Pearls can still be created incorrectly, so one might assume it requires effort from the Nacre. 'Goddess of Life' - Nacres are able to create and shape Pearls.
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While they do not have much authority over others compared to other authoritative figures, they have full control within the Reef, where they create Pearls and distribute them to deserving gems and locations that need assistance with small tasks that Pearls can perform. Nacres are the only gem capable of creating life besides the Diamonds. They wear floor-length dresses with circular designs and high, frilly collars and their gems resemble clam shells. Standard cuts come in a variety of colors, all washed out with short, fluffy, light hair. Nacres are among the tallest single gem types, slightly larger than Kyanites.